Ancient Indian Literature and Sources

 

Ancient Indian literature encompasses a vast body of texts that originated in the Indian subcontinent over several millennia.  These texts are much older than the surviving manuscripts and have a life of their own. Ancient literature constitutes a complex representation of that society and a refracted image of the past.  These texts cover a wide range of topics, including mythology, philosophy, science, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, politics, economics, poetry, drama, and more. The sources of ancient Indian literature can be broadly classified categories into oral tradition and written texts.

Oral Tradition: These kinds of literature were transmitted orally for centuries from generation to generation before being written down.

Vedas: The oldest and most sacred text of Hinduism, composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The four Vedas are Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. In the Hindu tradition, the Vedas have the status of shruti. They thought to embody an eternal, self-existent truth realized by the rishis in a state of meditation or revealed to them by the gods. They are believed to have been composed between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE, although the exact dates are uncertain. Each Veda is further divided into different sections, including Samhitas (collections of hymns), Brahmanas (ritualistic texts), Aranyakas (texts on rituals and meditation), and Upanishads (philosophical treatises).

The Vedas are highly esteemed by Hindus and are considered the influential foundation of knowledge about the gods, rituals, cosmology, and spiritual insights. They provide a glimpse into ancient India's religious, social, and cultural practices and have profoundly influenced Indian philosophy, literature, and thought for thousands of years.

Brahmanas: These prose texts provide explanations and rituals associated with the hymns of the Vedas. The Brahmanas are a collection of ancient Indian texts that are associated with the Vedic period of Hinduism. They are considered a part of the Vedic literature and serve as commentaries and explanations of the ritualistic aspects of the Vedas. The word "Brahmana" is derived from the Sanskrit word "Brahman," which refers to the ultimate reality or the divine power. The Brahmanas were composed in Vedic Sanskrit and are written in prose form. They provide detailed instructions, interpretations, and explanations of the rituals and sacrifices described in the Samhitas (collections of hymns) of the Vedas. The Brahmanas delve into the precise performance of rituals, the symbolism behind the rituals, the role of the priests, and the significance of the hymns and mantras.

Aranyakas: Texts that serve as a bridge between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical Upanishads. The Aranyakas are a collection of ancient Indian texts that are considered a part of the Vedic literature. The word "Aranyaka" is derived from the Sanskrit term "Aranya," which means "forest" or "wilderness." The Aranyakas are so named because they were intended to be studied and practiced by hermits and ascetics who retreated to the forests for meditation and contemplation. The Aranyakas are considered a bridge between the ritualistic Brahmanas (commentaries on the Vedas) and the philosophical Upanishads. They represent a transition from the external rituals and sacrifices to the internal, contemplative aspects of spirituality. The Aranyakas contain discussions on rituals, sacrifices, meditation techniques, and philosophical concepts.

Upanishads: Philosophical treatises that explore concepts such as the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth (Brahman). The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Indian philosophical and spiritual texts that are considered a part of the Vedic literature. The word "Upanishad" is derived from the Sanskrit terms "upa" (near), "ni" (down), and "shad" (to sit), which collectively mean "sitting near" or "sitting down near a teacher." This suggests the idea of students sitting close to a spiritual teacher to receive profound teachings and insights. The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Vedic texts and are considered the culmination of Vedic wisdom. They explore deep metaphysical, spiritual, and philosophical concepts and provide profound insights into the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate truth. The Upanishads are highly revered in Hinduism and are considered the core philosophical texts. There are more than 200 Upanishads, but traditionally, 108 Upanishads are considered the most important.

 

Written Texts: Most of this literature is written on palm leaf, the ancient palm leaf manuscripts are an important source for this literature.

Sanskrit Epics: There are two Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, this falls within the category of smriti as well as itihasa (traditional history).

The Ramayana is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Mahabharata. It is attributed to the sage Valmiki and is considered one of the most important and beloved texts in Hindu literature. The Ramayana narrates the story of Lord Rama, his adventures, and his journey to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. The Ramayana consists of about 24,000 verses and is divided into seven books, known as Kandas. Each Kanda focuses on a particular phase of Lord Rama's life and his heroic exploits. The main characters in the Ramayana include Lord Rama, Sita (his wife), Lakshmana (his brother), Hanuman (the monkey deity and Rama's devoted devotee), and Ravana (the demon king).

The Mahabharata is attributed to the sage Vyasa and is one of the longest epic poems in the world. The Mahabharata is not just a story but a vast compendium that encompasses diverse narratives, philosophical discourses, moral dilemmas, and teachings. The Mahabharata narrates the epic tale of the Bharata dynasty, focusing on the conflict between two sets of cousins: the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The epic is set in the kingdom of Hastinapura and revolves around the struggle for power, honor, and righteousness. It includes the Bhagavad Gita, a philosophical discourse. Beyond the main narrative, the Mahabharata also includes philosophical discourses, genealogies, legends, and digressions on diverse subjects such as statecraft, philosophy, ethics, and spirituality. The Mahabharata is not only a gripping tale of war and family dynamics but also a repository of moral and spiritual wisdom. It explores complex human emotions, ethical dilemmas, and the concept of dharma (righteousness and duty) in various contexts. The epic has had a profound influence on Indian culture, literature, art, and religious practices. It continues to be revered as a timeless treasure and a source of inspiration for people worldwide.

Puranas: Collections of myths, legends, and genealogies of gods, goddesses, and legendary figures. The Puranas are a collection of ancient Indian texts that are considered important in Hinduism. The word "Purana" is derived from the Sanskrit term "Pura," which means "ancient" or "old." The Puranas are regarded as the traditional histories of the universe, myths, legends, and genealogies of gods, goddesses, sages, and legendary figures. There are 18 major Puranas, and they are traditionally attributed to the sage Vyasa. Each Purana is dedicated to a particular deity or group of deities and provides narratives and teachings associated with them. The Puranas are written in a mix of prose and verse and are written in Sanskrit.

Dharmashastras: Legal and ethical texts that provide guidelines for personal conduct and social order. Dharmashastras, also known as Dharmaśāstra, is a genre of ancient Indian texts that focus on matters of law, ethics, and social conduct. The term "Dharmashastra" is derived from the Sanskrit words "dharma" (righteousness, duty, or law) and "Shastra" (treatise or scripture). These texts provide guidelines and prescriptions for personal conduct, social order, and legal principles based on dharma, which refers to moral and ethical duties and principles. Dharmashastra texts are considered authoritative sources for understanding Hindu law and ethics. They cover a wide range of topics, including social norms, family laws, property rights, contractual obligations, judicial procedures, criminal law, inheritance, marriage, divorce, and rituals for various life stages and sacraments

Arthashastra:  The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian text attributed to the scholar Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta. It is a treatise on statecraft, political theory, and governance. The word "Arthashastra" is derived from the Sanskrit terms "artha" (meaning "wealth" or "material well-being") and "shastra" (meaning "treatise" or "science"). Composed around the 4th century BCE, the Arthashastra provides insights into the political and administrative systems of ancient India. It covers a wide range of topics, including statecraft, economics, law enforcement, foreign policy, warfare, diplomacy, taxation, trade, agriculture, espionage, and ethics. The Arthashastra emphasizes the role of the king or ruler as the central figure responsible for the welfare and stability of the state. It provides detailed guidelines on the organization of the state, the duties of the king, the administration of justice, and the management of the economy. The text advocates for a strong and efficient state apparatus with well-defined roles for ministers, officials, and various departments.

Kamasutra: The Kama Sutra is an ancient Indian text that is known for its comprehensive exploration of human sexuality, relationships, and lifestyle. It was authored by Vātsyāyana, a sage who likely lived during the 3rd century CE. Despite its popular association with sexual positions, the Kama Sutra encompasses a broader range of subjects related to human behavior, including love, courtship, marriage, and social etiquette. The Kama Sutra is renowned for its explicit content and exploration of sexual techniques, it also promotes the idea that a fulfilling and harmonious relationship requires more than just physical pleasure. It emphasizes the importance of emotional connection, mutual respect, communication, and understanding between partners.

Natyashastra: The Natya Shastra is an ancient Indian text attributed to the sage Bharata Muni, believed to have been composed between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. It is a comprehensive treatise on the performing arts, particularly theater, dance, and music. The term "Natya" refers to dramatic arts, and "Shastra" means "treatise" or "science." The Natya Shastra covers a wide range of topics related to the performing arts, including dramatic theory, acting, dance, music, stagecraft, costumes, makeup, gestures, emotions, and aesthetics. It provides guidelines and prescriptions for every aspect of theatrical performance, aiming to create a complete and immersive experience for the audience.

Siddhantas: The term "Siddhantas" refers to a collection of ancient Indian astronomical and mathematical treatises. These texts are known as Siddhantas because they are considered authoritative sources of knowledge in their respective fields. Siddhanta means "established doctrine" or "established principles" in Sanskrit. The Siddhantas cover various aspects of astronomy, mathematics, timekeeping, and planetary calculations. They provide insights into celestial mechanics principles, celestial bodies' movement, and the measurement of time. These texts were significant in ancient India for both scientific and religious purposes, as they helped determine auspicious times for religious rituals and festivals.

It's important to note that ancient Indian literature was initially transmitted orally, and written versions were compiled at later stages. The texts were often revised, commented upon, and expanded by subsequent generations of scholars. Thus, the sources and origins of ancient Indian literature can sometimes be complex and varied. Brutal Islamic invasions in the 8^th century to 13^th century destroyed Indian universities which are important sources of ancient Indian literature. India lost several ancient pieces of literature developed by their scholar in from last around 5000 years of civilization.

In the upcoming blog, we are going explore details about ancient Indian literature.